In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single blogger.com example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined. The common ampersand (&) developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t (spelling et, Latin for and) were combined After enabling synchronization WordPress Like Button plugin adds 3 custom fields to posts: Likes; Dislikes; Likes minus dislikes; Create a new page, create a Custom page template and assign created Custom template to the page. If your custom page template does not have a posts loop, copy it from your current theme's blogger.com along with the The average quality score at our professional custom essay writing service is out of The high satisfaction rate is set by our Quality Control Department, which checks all papers before submission. The final check includes: Compliance with initial order details. Plagiarism. Proper referencing
Ligature (writing) - Wikipedia
In writing and typographya ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined. The earliest known script Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieratic both include many cases of character combinations that gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters.
Other notable ligatures, such as the Brahmic abugidas and the Germanic bind runefigure prominently throughout ancient manuscripts. These new glyphs emerge alongside the proliferation of writing with a stylus, whether on paper or clayand often for a practical reason: faster handwriting. Merchants especially needed a way to speed up the process of written communication and found that conjoining letters and abbreviating words for lay use was more convenient for record keeping and transaction than the bulky long forms.
Around the 9th and 10th centuries, monasteries became a fountainhead for these type of script modifications. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their writing speed by combining characters and by introducing notational abbreviations. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes. For example, in blackletterletters with right-facing bowls boand p and those with left-facing bowls ceodg and q were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed.
In many script forms, characters such as hmand n had their vertical strokes superimposed. Scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the fourteenth century employed hundreds of such abbreviations.
In hand writinga ligature is made by joining two or more how to edit custom css in thesis in an atypical fashion by merging their parts, or by writing one above or inside the other.
In printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as how to edit custom css in thesis unit, so the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around[4] typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting.
Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one block would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.
Ligatures began to fall out of use because of their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans and Futura. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the s which did not require journeyman knowledge or training to operate also generally avoid them. The trend against digraph use was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around with the production of the Apple II.
Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution the automatic use of ligatures where appropriatewhile most new digital typefaces did not include ligatures.
As most of the early PC development was designed for the English language which already treated ligatures as optional at best dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital.
Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped because of the mass production of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in A designer active in the period commented: "some of the world's greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world's worst fonts.
Ligatures have grown in popularity in the 21st century because of an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts.
One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting and later laser printers was Donald Knuth 's TeX program. Now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, how to edit custom css in thesis default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets; these include FF ScalaSeria and others by Martin Majoor and Hoefler Text by Jonathan Hoefler. Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity, how to edit custom css in thesis.
A parallel use of ligatures is seen in the creation of script fonts that join letterforms to simulate handwriting effectively. This trend is caused in part by the increased support for other languages and alphabets in modern computing, many of which use ligatures somewhat extensively. This has caused the development of new digital typesetting techniques such as OpenTypeand the incorporation of ligature support into the text display systems of macOSWindowsand applications like Microsoft Office, how to edit custom css in thesis.
An increasing modern trend is to use a "Th" ligature which reduces spacing between these letters to make it easier to read, a trait infrequent in metal type. Today, modern font programming divides ligatures into three groups, which can be activated separately: standard, contextual and historical. Standard ligatures are needed to allow the font to display without errors such as character collision.
Designers sometimes find contextual and historic ligatures desirable for creating effects or to evoke an old-fashioned print look. Many ligatures combine f with the following letter. The tittle of the i in many typefaces collides with the hood of the f when placed beside each other in a word, and are combined into a single glyph with the tittle absorbed into the f. Ligatures for fafefofrfsftfbfhfufyand for f followed by a full stopcommaor hyphen are also used, as well as the equivalent set for the doubled ff.
These arose because with the usual type sort for lowercase fthe end of its hood how to edit custom css in thesis on a kernwhich would be damaged by collision with raised parts of the next how to edit custom css in thesis. Ligatures crossing the morpheme boundary of a composite word are sometimes considered incorrect, especially in official German orthography as outlined in the Duden, how to edit custom css in thesis. Turkish distinguishes dotted and dotless "I".
In a ligature with f in words such as fırın and fikirthis contrast would be obscured. The fi ligature is therefore not used in Turkish typography, and neither are other ligatures like that for flwhich would be rare anyway. Instead, how to edit custom css in thesis, the "sz" ligature has merged into a single character, the German ß — see below. Sometimes, ligatures for st stſt ſtchckctQu and Th are used e.
in the typeface Linux Libertine. Besides conventional ligatures, in the metal type era some newspapers commissioned how to edit custom css in thesis condensed single sorts for the names of common long names that might appear in news headings, such as " Eisenhower ", " Chamberlain ", and others. In these cases the characters did not appear combined, just more tightly spaced than if printed conventionally.
The German Eszett also called the scharfes Smeaning sharp s ß is an official letter of the alphabet in Germany and Austria. There is no general consensus about its history. Its name Es-zett meaning S-Z suggests a connection of "long s and z" ſʒ but the Latin script also knows a ligature of "long s over round s" ſs, how to edit custom css in thesis.
The latter is used as the design principle for the character in most of today's typefaces. Since German was mostly set in blackletter typefaces until the s, and those typefaces were rarely set in uppercase, a capital version of the Eszett never came into common use, even though its creation has been discussed since the end of the 19th century.
The SS replacement was until the only valid spelling according to the official orthography the so-called Rechtschreibreform in Germany and Austria. For German writing in Switzerland, the ß is omitted altogether in favour of ss, hence the German jest about the Swiss: " Wie trinken die Schweizer Bier? The capital version ẞ of the Eszett character has been part of Unicode sinceand has appeared in more and more typefaces. The new character entered mainstream writing in June how to edit custom css in thesis A new standardized German keyboard layout DIN T2 has included the capital ß since Since the end ofthe Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen StAGN has suggested the new upper case character for "ß" rather than replacing it with "SS" or "SZ" for geographical names.
In the orthography in use since in the Wampanoag communities participating in the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project, the ligature was replaced with the numeral 8, partly because of its ease in typesetting and display as well as its similarity to the o-u ligature Ȣ used in Abenaki. For example, compare the colonial-era spelling seepꝏash [13] with the modern WLRP spelling seep8ash. As the letter W is an addition to the Latin alphabet that originated in the seventh century, the phoneme it represents was formerly written in various ways.
In Old Englishthe runic letter wynn Ƿ was used, but Norman influence forced wynn out of use, how to edit custom css in thesis. By the 14th century, the "new" letter Woriginated as two V s or U s joined together, developed into a legitimate letter with its own position in the alphabet. Because of its relative youth compared to other letters of the alphabet, only a few European languages English, Dutch, German, Polish, Welsh, Maltese, and Walloon use the letter in native words.
The character Æ lower case æ ; in ancient times named æsc when used in the DanishNorwegianor Icelandic languages, or Old Englishis not a typographic ligature. It is a distinct letter —a vowel —and when alphabetised, is given a different place in the alphabetic order. In modern English orthography Æ is not considered an independent letter but a spelling variant, for example: " encyclopædia " versus "encyclopaedia" or "encyclopedia". Æ comes from Medieval Latinhow to edit custom css in thesis, where it was an optional ligature in some words, for example, "Æneas".
It is still found as a variant in English and French, but the trend has recently been towards printing the A and E separately.
In German orthographythe umlauted vowels äöand ü historically arose from aeoehow to edit custom css in thesis, ue ligatures strictly, from superscript eviz. It is common practice to replace them with ae, oe, ue digraphs when the diacritics are unavailable, for example in electronic conversation.
Phone books treat umlauted vowels as equivalent to the relevant digraph so that a name Müller will appear at the same place as if it were spelled Mueller; German surnames have a strongly fixed orthography, either a name is spelled with ü or with ue ; however, the alphabetic order used in other books treats them as equivalent to the simple letters ao and u. The convention in Scandinavian languages and Finnish is different: there the umlaut vowels are treated as independent letters with positions at the end of the alphabet.
The ring diacritic used in vowels such as å likewise originated as an o -ligature. MHG fuoszENHG fuͦßModern German Fuß "foot". It survives in Czechwhere it is called kroužek, how to edit custom css in thesis.
The letter hwair ƕused only in transliteration of the Gothic languageresembles a hw ligature. It was introduced by philologists around to replace the digraph hv formerly used to express the phoneme in question, e. by Migne in the s Patrologia Latina vol. The Byzantines had a unique o-u ligature Ȣ that, while originally based on the Greek alphabet 's ο-υ, carried over into Latin alphabets as well. This ligature is still seen today on icon artwork in Greek Orthodox churches, and sometimes in graffiti or other forms of informal or decorative writing.
Gha ƣa rarely used letter based on Q and G, was misconstrued by the ISO to be an OI ligature because of its appearance, and is thus known to the ISO and, in turn, Unicode as "Oi". The International Phonetic Alphabet formerly used ligatures to represent affricate consonantsof which six are encoded in Unicode: ʣ, ʤ, ʥ, ʦ, ʧ and ʨ.
How to edit custom css in thesis fricative consonant is still represented with a ligature: ɮand the extensions to the IPA contain three more: ʩʪ and ʫ, how to edit custom css in thesis. The Initial Teaching Alphabeta short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: ꜷ, æ, œ, ᵫ, ꭡ, and ligatures for ee, ou and oi that are not encoded in Unicode.
Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of ʃh, ʈh, wh, ʗh, ng and a reversed t with h neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode. Rarer ligatures also exist, such as ꜳ; ꜵ; ꜷ; ꜹ; ꜻ barred av ; ꜽ; ꝏ, which is used in medieval Nordic languages for oː a long close-mid back rounded vowel[20] as well as in some orthographies of the Massachusett language to represent uː a long close back rounded vowel ; ᵺ; ỻ, which was used in Medieval Welsh to represent ɬ the voiceless lateral fricative ; [20] ꜩ; ᴂ; ᴔ; and ꭣ.
This was originally a ligature of E and tforming the Latin word "et", meaning " and ". It has exactly the same use in French and in English. The ampersand comes in many different forms. Because of its ubiquity, it is generally no longer considered a ligature, but a logogram. Like many other ligatures, it has at times been considered a letter e.
In most fonts, it does not immediately resemble the two letters used to form it, although certain typefaces use designs in the form of a ligature examples including the original versions of Futura and UniversTrebuchet MSand Civilité known in modern times as the italic of Garamond.
Alchemy used a set of mostly standardized symbolsmany of which were ligatures: how to edit custom css in thesis AR, for aqua regia�� S inside a V, for aqua vitae�� MB, for balneum Mariae [Mary's bath], a double boiler�� VB, for balneum vaporishow to edit custom css in thesis, a steam bathand �� aaafor amalgam, how to edit custom css in thesis.
Digraphssuch as ll in Spanish or Welshare not ligatures in the general case as the two letters are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting or italic fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate.
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In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single blogger.com example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined. The common ampersand (&) developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t (spelling et, Latin for and) were combined The Adobe PDF Library SDK from Datalogics allows you to incorporate Adobe's PDF functionality into your own applications. Built with the same core technology that Adobe uses to build Acrobat, the Adobe PDF Library SDK is a low-level PDF library that contains a powerful set of native C/C++ APIs with interfaces blogger.com and Java After enabling synchronization WordPress Like Button plugin adds 3 custom fields to posts: Likes; Dislikes; Likes minus dislikes; Create a new page, create a Custom page template and assign created Custom template to the page. If your custom page template does not have a posts loop, copy it from your current theme's blogger.com along with the
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